Poultry

Poultry farming is the process of raising domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese for the purpose of farming meat or eggs for food. Poultry - mostly chickens - are farmed in great numbers. Farmers raise more than 50 billion chickens annually as a source of food, both for their meat and for their eggs.[1] Chickens raised for eggs are usually called[by whom?] layers while chickens raised for meat are often called broilers.[2]

Peternakan unggas adalah proses memelihara unggas peliharaan seperti ayam, bebek, kalkun dan angsa untuk keperluan peternakan daging atau telur untuk makanan. Unggas - kebanyakan ayam - dipelihara dalam jumlah besar. Peternak memelihara lebih dari 50 miliar ayam setiap tahun sebagai sumber makanan, baik untuk daging dan telur mereka. [1] Ayam yang dipelihara untuk telur biasanya disebut lapisan [oleh siapa?] Sedangkan ayam yang dipelihara untuk daging sering disebut ayam pedaging. [2]

In the United States, the national organization overseeing poultry production is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the UK, the national organisation is the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).

Di Amerika Serikat, organisasi nasional yang mengawasi produksi unggas adalah Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Di Inggris, organisasi nasional adalah Departemen Lingkungan, Pangan dan Urusan Pedesaan (Defra).

According to the researchers and scientists, 74 percent of the world's poultry meat, and 68 percent of eggs are produced in ways that are described as 'intensive'.[4] One alternative to intensive poultry farming is free-range farming using lower stocking densities. Poultry producers routinely use nationally approved medications, such as antibiotics, in feed or drinking water, to treat disease or to prevent disease outbreaks. Some FDA-approved medications are also approved for improved feed utilization.[5]

Menurut para peneliti dan ilmuwan, 74 persen daging unggas dunia, dan 68 persen telur diproduksi dengan cara yang disebut 'intensif'. [4] Salah satu alternatif untuk peternakan unggas intensif adalah peternakan bebas menggunakan kepadatan tebar yang lebih rendah. Produsen unggas secara rutin menggunakan obat-obatan yang disetujui secara nasional, seperti antibiotik, dalam pakan atau air minum, untuk mengobati penyakit atau untuk mencegah berjangkitnya penyakit. Beberapa obat yang disetujui FDA juga disetujui untuk meningkatkan pemanfaatan pakan. [5]

Egg-laying chickens – basic systems

Commercial hens usually begin laying eggs at 16–20 weeks of age, although production gradually declines soon after from approximately 25 weeks of age.[6] This means that in many countries, by approximately 72 weeks of age, flocks are considered economically unviable and are slaughtered after approximately 12 months of egg production,[7] although chickens will naturally live for 6 or more years. In some countries, hens are force moulted to re-invigorate egg-laying.

Ayam bertelur - sistem dasar

Ayam komersial biasanya mulai bertelur pada usia 16-20 minggu, meskipun produksi secara bertahap menurun segera setelah sekitar 25 minggu. [6] Ini berarti bahwa di banyak negara, pada sekitar 72 minggu, kawanan dianggap tidak layak secara ekonomi dan disembelih setelah sekitar 12 bulan produksi telur, [7] meskipun ayam secara alami akan hidup selama 6 tahun atau lebih. Di beberapa negara, ayam dipaksa untuk memperkuat kembali bertelur.

Environmental conditions are often automatically controlled in egg-laying systems. For example, the duration of the light phase is initially increased to prompt the beginning of egg-laying at 16–20 weeks of age and then mimics summer day length which stimulates the hens to continue laying eggs all year round; normally, egg production occurs only in the warmer months. Some commercial breeds of hen can produce over 300 eggs a year.[8]

Kondisi lingkungan seringkali dikendalikan secara otomatis dalam sistem bertelur. Misalnya, durasi fase cahaya awalnya meningkat untuk mendorong awal bertelur pada usia 16-20 minggu dan kemudian meniru panjang hari musim panas yang merangsang ayam untuk terus bertelur sepanjang tahun; normalnya, produksi telur hanya terjadi pada bulan-bulan hangat. Beberapa ayam betina komersial dapat menghasilkan lebih dari 300 telur per tahun. [8]

Free-range

Free-range poultry farming allows chickens to roam freely for a period of the day, although they are usually confined in sheds at night to protect them from predators or kept indoors if the weather is particularly bad. In the UK, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) states that a free-range chicken must have day-time access to open-air runs during at least half of its life. Unlike in the United States, this definition also applies to free-range egg-laying hens. The European Union regulates marketing standards for egg farming which specifies a minimum condition for free-range eggs that "hens have continuous daytime access to open-air runs, except in the case of temporary restrictions imposed by veterinary authorities".[9] The RSPCA "Welfare standards for laying hens and pullets" indicates that the stocking rate must not exceed 1,000 birds per hectare (10 m2 per hen) of range available and a minimum area of overhead shade/shelter of 8 m2 per 1,000 hens must be provided.

Jarak bebas

Peternakan unggas jarak-bebas memungkinkan ayam berkeliaran dengan bebas selama periode hari itu, meskipun mereka biasanya dikurung di kandang pada malam hari untuk melindungi mereka dari pemangsa atau disimpan di dalam ruangan jika cuaca sangat buruk. Di Inggris, Departemen Lingkungan, Pangan dan Urusan Pedesaan (Defra) menyatakan bahwa seekor ayam buras harus memiliki akses siang hari ke saluran udara terbuka selama setidaknya setengah dari hidupnya. Tidak seperti di Amerika Serikat, definisi ini juga berlaku untuk ayam petelur jarak-bebas. Uni Eropa mengatur standar pemasaran untuk peternakan telur yang menentukan kondisi minimum untuk telur buras yang "ayam-ayamnya memiliki akses siang hari terus-menerus ke saluran udara terbuka, kecuali dalam kasus pembatasan sementara yang diberlakukan oleh otoritas veteriner". [9] "Standar kesejahteraan untuk RS ayam petelur dan ayam betina" RSPCA menunjukkan bahwa tingkat penebaran tidak boleh melebihi 1.000 burung per hektar (10 m2 per ayam) dari jangkauan yang tersedia dan area minimum naungan / tempat berlindung 8 m2 per 1.000 ayam harus disediakan .

Free-range farming of egg-laying hens is increasing its share of the market. Defra figures indicate that 45% of eggs produced in the UK throughout 2010 were free-range, 5% were produced in barn systems and 50% from cages. This compares with 41% being free-range in 2009.[10]

Suitable land requires adequate drainage to minimise worms and coccidial oocysts, suitable protection from prevailing winds, good ventilation, access and protection from predators. Excess heat, cold or damp can have a harmful effect on the animals and their productivity.[11] Free-range farmers have less control than farmers using cages in what food their chickens eat, which can lead to unreliable productivity, though supplementary feeding reduces this uncertainty.[citation needed] In some farms, the manure from free-range poultry can be used to benefit crops.[12]

Pertanian ayam betina bertelur bebas meningkatkan pangsa pasarnya. Angka Defra menunjukkan bahwa 45% telur yang diproduksi di Inggris sepanjang 2010 adalah hewan buruan, 5% diproduksi dalam sistem gudang dan 50% dari kandang. Ini dibandingkan dengan 41% yang berasal dari jarak bebas di tahun 2009. [10]

Lahan yang cocok membutuhkan drainase yang memadai untuk meminimalkan cacing dan ookista coccidial, perlindungan yang sesuai dari angin yang ada, ventilasi yang baik, akses dan perlindungan dari predator. Panas berlebih, dingin, atau lembab dapat memiliki efek berbahaya pada hewan dan produktivitasnya. [11] Peternak bebas memiliki kontrol yang lebih sedikit daripada peternak yang menggunakan kandang dalam makanan apa yang dimakan ayam mereka, yang dapat menyebabkan produktivitas tidak dapat diandalkan, meskipun pemberian makanan tambahan mengurangi ketidakpastian ini. [Rujukan?] Di beberapa peternakan, kotoran dari unggas jarak jauh dapat digunakan untuk mendapat manfaat tanaman. [12]

The benefits of free-range poultry farming for laying hens include opportunities for natural behaviours such as pecking, scratching, foraging and exercise outdoors.[13]

Both intensive and free-range farming have animal welfare concerns. Cannibalism, feather pecking and vent pecking can be common, prompting some farmers to use beak trimming as a preventative measure, although reducing stocking rates would eliminate these problems.[14] Diseases can be common and the animals are vulnerable to predators.[14] Barn systems have been found to have the worst bird welfare.[14] In South-East Asia, a lack of disease control in free range farming has been associated with outbreaks of Avian influenza.[15]

Manfaat dari peternakan unggas gratis untuk ayam petelur termasuk peluang untuk perilaku alami seperti mematuk, menggaruk, mencari makan, dan berolahraga di luar ruangan. [13]

Baik pertanian intensif maupun pertanian bebas memiliki masalah kesejahteraan hewan. Kanibalisme, mematuk bulu, dan mematuk ventilasi bisa menjadi hal yang umum, mendorong beberapa petani untuk menggunakan pemangkasan paruh sebagai langkah pencegahan, meskipun mengurangi tingkat stocking akan menghilangkan masalah ini. [14] Penyakit dapat terjadi secara umum dan hewan-hewan rentan terhadap predator. [14] Sistem gudang ditemukan memiliki kesejahteraan burung terburuk. [14] Di Asia Tenggara, kurangnya pengendalian penyakit dalam pertanian jarak bebas telah dikaitkan dengan wabah flu burung. [15]

Free-Run

Instead of keeping them in cages, free-run laying hens roam freely within an enclosed barn. This type of housing also provides enrichment for the hens, including nesting boxes and perches that are often located along the floor of the barn. Many believe that this type of housing is better for the bird than any caging system, but it has its disadvantages, too. Due to the increase in activity of the birds, dust levels tend to elevate and the air quality decreases. When air quality drops, so does production as this compromises the health and welfare of both birds and their caretakers.[16]

Lari bebas

Alih-alih menyimpannya di kandang, ayam petelur lari bebas berkeliaran di dalam kandang tertutup. Jenis perumahan ini juga memberikan pengayaan untuk ayam, termasuk kotak bersarang dan bertengger yang sering terletak di sepanjang lantai gudang. Banyak yang percaya bahwa jenis perumahan ini lebih baik untuk burung daripada sistem kandang, tetapi juga memiliki kelemahan. Karena peningkatan aktivitas burung, tingkat debu cenderung meningkat dan kualitas udara menurun. Ketika kualitas udara turun, begitu juga produksi karena hal ini membahayakan kesehatan dan kesejahteraan burung dan pengasuhnya. [16]

Organic

In organic egg-laying systems, chickens are also free-range. Organic systems are based upon restrictions on the routine use of synthetic yolk colourants, in-feed or in-water medications, other food additives and synthetic amino acids, and a lower stocking density and smaller group sizes.[citation needed] The Soil Association standards[17] used to certify organic flocks in the UK, indicate a maximum outdoors stocking density of 1,000 birds per hectare and a maximum of 2,000 hens in each poultry house. In the UK, organic laying hens are not routinely beak-trimmed.

Organik

Dalam sistem bertelur organik, ayam juga memiliki kisaran bebas. Sistem organik didasarkan pada pembatasan penggunaan rutin pewarna kuning telur sintetis, in-feed atau obat-obatan dalam air, zat tambahan makanan lain dan asam amino sintetis, dan kepadatan tebar yang lebih rendah dan ukuran kelompok yang lebih kecil. [Rujukan?] Standar Asosiasi Tanah [17] yang digunakan untuk mengesahkan kawanan organik di Inggris, menunjukkan kepadatan stocking di luar ruangan maksimum 1.000 burung per hektar dan maksimum 2.000 ayam di setiap rumah unggas. Di Inggris, ayam petelur organik tidak dipangkas paruh secara rutin.

Yarding

While often confused with free range farming, yarding is actually a separate method by which a hutch and fenced off area outside are combined when farming poultry. The distinction is that free-range poultry are either totally unfenced, or the fence is so distant that it has little influence on their freedom of movement. Yarding is common technique used by small farms in the Northeastern US. The birds are released daily from hutches or coops. The hens usually lay eggs either on the floor of the coop or in baskets if provided by the farmer. This husbandry technique can be complicated if used with roosters, mostly because of aggressive behavior.

Yarding

Meskipun sering bingung dengan pertanian jarak bebas, yarding sebenarnya adalah metode yang terpisah di mana kandang dan pagar di luar digabungkan ketika peternakan unggas. Perbedaannya adalah bahwa unggas jarak dekat sama sekali tidak terlindungi, atau pagar sangat jauh sehingga memiliki sedikit pengaruh pada kebebasan bergerak mereka. Yarding adalah teknik umum yang digunakan oleh pertanian kecil di AS Timur Laut. Burung-burung dilepaskan setiap hari dari kandang atau kandang. Ayam biasanya bertelur baik di lantai kandang atau di keranjang jika disediakan oleh petani. Teknik peternakan ini bisa rumit jika digunakan dengan ayam jantan, sebagian besar karena perilaku agresif.

Battery cage

The majority of hens in many countries are housed in battery cages, although the European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC[19] has banned the conventional battery cage in EU states from January 2012. As of April 1, 2017, no new battery cages are able to be installed in Canada.[20] Farmers must move towards enriched housing or use a cage-free system. In 2016, the Egg Farmers of Canada announced that the country's egg farmers will be transitioning away from conventional hen housing systems (battery cages) and have no conventional caging left by the year 2036.[21] These are small cages, usually made of metal in modern systems, housing 3 to 8 hens. The walls are made of either solid metal or mesh, and the floor is sloped wire mesh to allow the feces to drop through and eggs to roll onto an egg-collecting conveyor belt. Water is usually provided by overhead nipple systems, and food in a trough along the front of the cage replenished at regular intervals by a mechanical chail.

Mayoritas ayam di banyak negara bertempat di kandang baterai, meskipun European Union Council Directive 1999/74 / EC [19] telah melarang kandang baterai konvensional di negara-negara UE mulai Januari 2012. Pada 1 April 2017, tidak ada baterai baru kandang dapat dipasang di Kanada. [20] Petani harus bergerak menuju perumahan yang diperkaya atau menggunakan sistem bebas kandang. Pada tahun 2016, Peternak Telur Kanada mengumumkan bahwa peternak telur negara itu akan beralih dari sistem kandang ayam konvensional (kandang baterai) dan tidak memiliki kandang konvensional yang tersisa pada tahun 2036. [21] Ini adalah kandang kecil, biasanya terbuat dari logam dalam sistem modern, menampung 3 hingga 8 ekor ayam. Dindingnya terbuat dari logam padat atau jaring, dan lantainya terbuat dari jaring kawat yang miring untuk memungkinkan kotorannya masuk dan telur berguling ke sabuk konveyor pengumpul telur. Air biasanya disediakan oleh sistem puting di atas kepala, dan makanan di palung di sepanjang bagian depan kandang diisi kembali secara berkala dengan chail mekanis.

Battery cages are arranged in long rows as multiple tiers, often with cages back-to-back (hence the term). Within a single barn, there may be several floors containing battery cages meaning that a single shed may contain many tens of thousands of hens. Light intensity is often kept low (e.g. 10 lux) to reduce feather pecking and vent pecking. Benefits of battery cages include easier care for the birds, floor-laid eggs (which are expensive to collect) are eliminated, eggs are cleaner, capture at the end of lay is expedited, generally less feed is required to produce eggs, broodiness is eliminated, more hens may be housed in a given house floor space, internal parasites are more easily treated, and labor requirements are generally much reduced.

Kandang baterai diatur dalam baris panjang sebagai beberapa tingkatan, seringkali dengan kandang saling membelakangi (oleh karena itu istilahnya). Dalam satu gudang, mungkin ada beberapa lantai berisi kandang baterai yang berarti bahwa satu gudang mungkin berisi puluhan ribu ayam. Intensitas cahaya sering dijaga tetap rendah (mis. 10 lux) untuk mengurangi pecking bulu dan ventilasi pecking. Manfaat kandang baterai termasuk perawatan yang lebih mudah bagi burung, telur yang diletakkan di lantai (yang mahal untuk dikumpulkan) dihilangkan, telur lebih bersih, penangkapan di ujung tempat tidur dipercepat, umumnya lebih sedikit pakan yang dibutuhkan untuk menghasilkan telur, kekenyalan dihilangkan , lebih banyak ayam dapat ditempatkan di ruang lantai rumah tertentu, parasit internal lebih mudah dirawat, dan kebutuhan tenaga kerja umumnya jauh berkurang.

In farms using cages for egg production, there are more birds per unit area; this allows for greater productivity and lower food costs.[22] Floor space ranges upwards from 300 cm2 per hen. EU standards in 2003 called for at least 550 cm2 per hen.[23] In the US, the current recommendation by the United Egg Producers is 67 to 86 in2 (430 to 560 cm2) per bird.[24] The space available to battery hens has often been described as less than the size of a piece of A4 paper.[25] Animal welfare scientists have been critical of battery cages because they do not provide hens with sufficient space to stand, walk, flap their wings, perch, or make a nest, and it is widely considered that hens suffer through boredom and frustration through being unable to perform these behaviours.[26] This can lead to a wide range of abnormal behaviours, some of which are injurious to the hens or their cagemates.

Di peternakan menggunakan kandang untuk produksi telur, ada lebih banyak burung per unit luas; ini memungkinkan produktivitas yang lebih besar dan biaya makanan lebih rendah. [22] Ruang lantai berkisar dari 300 cm2 per hen. Standar UE pada tahun 2003 menyerukan sedikitnya 550 cm2 per ekor. [23] Di AS, rekomendasi saat ini oleh United Egg Producers adalah 67 hingga 86 in2 (430 hingga 560 cm2) per burung. [24] Ruang yang tersedia untuk ayam baterai sering digambarkan kurang dari ukuran selembar kertas A4. [25] Ilmuwan kesejahteraan hewan telah kritis terhadap kandang baterai karena mereka tidak memberikan ayam dengan ruang yang cukup untuk berdiri, berjalan, mengepakkan sayap, bertengger, atau membuat sarang, dan secara luas dianggap bahwa ayam menderita melalui kebosanan dan frustrasi karena tidak mampu lakukan perilaku ini. [26] Hal ini dapat menyebabkan berbagai perilaku abnormal, beberapa di antaranya berbahaya bagi ayam betina atau rekannya.

Furnished cage

In 1999, the European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC[19] banned conventional battery cages for laying hens throughout the European Union from January 1, 2012; they were banned previously in other countries including Switzerland. In response to these bans, development of prototype commercial furnished cage systems began in the 1980s. Furnished cages, sometimes called 'enriched' or 'modified' cages, are cages for egg-laying hens which have been designed to allow the hens to perform their "natural behaviors" whilst retaining their economic and husbandry advantages, and also provide some of the welfare advantages of non-cage systems. Many design features of furnished cages have been incorporated because research in animal welfare science has shown them to be of benefit to the hens. In the UK, the Defra "Code for the Welfare of Laying Hens"[27] states furnished cages should provide at least 750 cm2 of cage area per hen, 600 cm2 of which should be usable; the height of the cage other than that above the usable area should be at least 20 cm at every point and no cage should have a total area that is less than 2000 cm2. In addition, furnished cages should provide a nest, litter such that pecking and scratching are possible, appropriate perches allowing at least 15 cm per hen, a claw-shortening device, and a feed trough which may be used without restriction providing 12 cm per hen. Furnished cages (Enriched) give the hens more space than the conventional battery cages, so that each bird may spread their wings without touching one another if desired. Enrichment such as nest boxes, perches, and dust baths are also provided so that the birds may carry out their natural behaviors such as nesting, roosting, and scratching as though they were outdoors.

Kandang berperabot

Pada tahun 1999, Instruksi Dewan Uni Eropa 1999/74 / EC [19] melarang kandang baterai konvensional untuk meletakkan ayam di seluruh Uni Eropa mulai 1 Januari 2012; mereka sebelumnya dilarang di negara lain termasuk Swiss. Menanggapi larangan ini, pengembangan prototipe sistem kandang berperabot komersial dimulai pada 1980-an. Kandang berperabot, kadang-kadang disebut kandang 'diperkaya' atau 'dimodifikasi', adalah kandang untuk ayam petelur yang telah dirancang untuk memungkinkan ayam betina untuk melakukan "perilaku alami" mereka sambil mempertahankan keuntungan ekonomi dan peternakan mereka, dan juga menyediakan beberapa keuntungan kesejahteraan dari sistem non-kandang. Banyak fitur desain kandang berperabot telah dimasukkan karena penelitian dalam ilmu kesejahteraan hewan telah menunjukkan mereka bermanfaat bagi ayam. Di Inggris, Defra "Kode untuk Kesejahteraan Ayam Petelur" [27] menyatakan kandang yang dilengkapi harus menyediakan setidaknya 750 cm2 luas kandang per ayam, 600 cm2 di antaranya harus dapat digunakan; ketinggian kandang selain dari yang di atas area yang dapat digunakan harus setidaknya 20 cm di setiap titik dan tidak ada kandang yang memiliki luas total kurang dari 2000 cm2. Selain itu, kandang berperabot harus menyediakan sarang, serasah sehingga pecking dan goresan dimungkinkan, tempat bertengger yang sesuai memungkinkan setidaknya 15 cm per ayam, alat pemendek cakar, dan bak pakan yang dapat digunakan tanpa batasan dengan menyediakan 12 cm per ayam . Kandang berperabot (Diperkaya) memberi ayam lebih banyak ruang daripada kandang baterai konvensional, sehingga setiap burung dapat melebarkan sayapnya tanpa menyentuh satu sama lain jika diinginkan. Pengayaan seperti kotak sarang, tempat bertengger, dan mandi debu juga disediakan sehingga burung dapat melakukan perilaku alami mereka seperti bersarang, bertengger, dan menggaruk seolah-olah mereka berada di luar ruangan.

Enrichment of laying hen cages ultimately results in better bone quality.[28] This is a result of the increased activity in the hens from the additional space and enrichment provided in the furnished housing system.

Although the enriched housing system has its advantages such as reduced aggression towards one another and cleaner eggs, modern egg laying breeds often suffer from osteoporosis which results in the chicken's skeletal system being weakened. During egg production, large amounts of calcium are transferred from bones to create egg-shell. Although dietary calcium levels are adequate, absorption of dietary calcium is not always sufficient, given the intensity of production, to fully replenish bone calcium. This can lead to increases in bone breakages, particularly when the hens are being removed from cages at the end of laying. Osteoporosis may be prevented by free range and cage-free housing systems, as they have shown to have a beneficial impact on the skeletal system of the hens compared to those housed in caged systems.[29]

Pengayaan kandang ayam petelur pada akhirnya menghasilkan kualitas tulang yang lebih baik. [28] Ini adalah hasil dari peningkatan aktivitas di ayam dari ruang tambahan dan pengayaan yang disediakan dalam sistem perumahan berperabot.

Meskipun sistem perumahan yang diperkaya memiliki kelebihan seperti berkurangnya agresi terhadap satu sama lain dan telur yang lebih bersih, breed bertelur modern sering menderita osteoporosis yang mengakibatkan sistem kerangka ayam menjadi lemah. Selama produksi telur, sejumlah besar kalsium ditransfer dari tulang untuk membuat kulit telur. Meskipun kadar kalsium dalam makanan cukup, penyerapan kalsium dalam makanan tidak selalu cukup, mengingat intensitas produksi, untuk sepenuhnya mengisi kembali kalsium tulang. Hal ini dapat menyebabkan peningkatan patah tulang, terutama ketika ayam dikeluarkan dari kandang pada akhir pemasangan. Osteoporosis dapat dicegah dengan sistem perumahan bebas kandang dan kandang, karena mereka terbukti memiliki dampak yang menguntungkan pada sistem rangka ayam dibandingkan dengan yang ditempatkan di sistem kandang. [29]

Countries such as Austria, Belgium or Germany are planning to ban furnished cages until 2025 additionally to the already banned conventional cages.[30]

Broilers in a production house

Indoor broilers

Meat chickens, commonly called broilers, are floor-raised on litter such as wood shavings, peanut shells, and rice hulls, indoors in climate-controlled housing. Under modern farming methods, meat chickens reared indoors reach slaughter weight at 5 to 9 weeks of age, as they have been selectively bred to do so. In the first week of a broiler’s life, it can grow up to 300 percent of its body size. A nine-week-old broiler averages over 9 pounds in body weight. At nine weeks, a hen will average around 7 pounds and a rooster will weigh around 12 pounds, having a nine-pound average.

Broilers are not raised in cages. They are raised in large, open structures known as grow out houses. A farmer receives the birds from the hatchery at one day old. A grow out consists of 5 to 9 weeks according to how big the kill plant wants the chickens to be. These houses are equipped with mechanical systems to deliver feed and water to the birds. They have ventilation systems and heaters that function as needed. The floor of the house is covered with bedding material consisting of wood chips, rice hulls, or peanut shells. In some cases they can be grown over dry litter or compost. Because dry bedding helps maintain flock health, most growout houses have enclosed watering systems (“nipple drinkers”) which reduce spillage.[31]

Ayam pedaging di rumah produksi

Ayam pedaging dalam ruangan

Ayam daging, biasa disebut ayam pedaging, dilantai di atas serasah seperti serutan kayu, kulit kacang, dan sekam padi, di dalam ruangan di rumah yang dikontrol iklim. Di bawah metode pertanian modern, daging ayam yang dipelihara di dalam ruangan mencapai berat pembantaian pada usia 5 hingga 9 minggu, karena mereka dibiakkan secara selektif untuk melakukannya. Pada minggu pertama kehidupan broiler, ia dapat tumbuh hingga 300 persen dari ukuran tubuhnya. Ayam pedaging berumur sembilan minggu rata-rata memiliki berat lebih dari 9 kilogram. Pada sembilan minggu, seekor ayam betina akan rata-rata sekitar 7 pound dan seekor ayam jantan akan memiliki berat sekitar 12 pound, memiliki rata-rata sembilan pound.

Ayam pedaging tidak dibesarkan dalam kandang. Mereka dibesarkan dalam struktur besar dan terbuka yang dikenal sebagai rumah tumbuh. Seorang petani menerima burung-burung dari tempat penetasan pada usia satu hari. Tumbuh terdiri dari 5 hingga 9 minggu sesuai dengan seberapa besar tanaman yang diinginkan membunuh ayam. Rumah-rumah ini dilengkapi dengan sistem mekanis untuk mengirimkan pakan dan air ke burung. Mereka memiliki sistem ventilasi dan pemanas yang berfungsi sesuai kebutuhan. Lantai rumah ditutupi dengan bahan tempat tidur yang terdiri dari serpihan kayu, sekam padi, atau kulit kacang. Dalam beberapa kasus mereka dapat tumbuh di atas sampah kering atau kompos. Karena tempat tidur kering membantu menjaga kesehatan kawanan, sebagian besar rumah tanaman memiliki sistem penyiraman tertutup ("peminum puting") yang mengurangi tumpahan. [31]

Keeping birds inside a house protects them from predators such as hawks and foxes. Some houses are equipped with curtain walls, which can be rolled up in good weather to admit natural light and fresh air. Most growout houses built in recent years feature “tunnel ventilation,” in which a bank of fans draws fresh air through the house.[31]

Traditionally, a flock of broilers consist of about 20,000 birds in a growout house that measures 400/500 feet long and 40/50 feet wide, thus providing about eight-tenths of a square foot per bird. The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) states that the minimum space is one-half square foot per bird. More modern houses are often larger and contain more birds, but the floor space allotment still meets the needs of the birds. The larger the bird is grown the fewer chickens are put in each house, to give the bigger bird more space per square foot.[31]

Because broilers are relatively young and have not reached sexual maturity, they exhibit very little aggressive conduct.[31]

Chicken feed consists primarily of corn and soybean meal with the addition of essential vitamins and minerals. No hormones or steroids are allowed in raising chickens.[31][32]

Memelihara burung di dalam rumah melindungi mereka dari pemangsa seperti elang dan rubah. Beberapa rumah dilengkapi dengan dinding gorden, yang dapat digulung dalam cuaca yang baik untuk menerima cahaya alami dan udara segar. Sebagian besar rumah tumbuh yang dibangun dalam beberapa tahun terakhir menampilkan "ventilasi terowongan," di mana sekelompok penggemar menghirup udara segar melalui rumah. [31]

Secara tradisional, sekawanan ayam pedaging terdiri dari sekitar 20.000 burung di sebuah rumah besar yang berukuran 400/500 kaki dan lebar 40/50 kaki, sehingga menyediakan sekitar delapan persepuluh kaki persegi per burung. Dewan Sains dan Teknologi Pertanian (CAST) menyatakan bahwa ruang minimum adalah satu setengah meter persegi per burung. Rumah yang lebih modern sering lebih besar dan berisi lebih banyak burung, tetapi penjatahan ruang lantai masih memenuhi kebutuhan burung. Semakin besar burung tumbuh, semakin sedikit ayam yang ditempatkan di setiap rumah, untuk memberi burung lebih besar lebih banyak ruang per kaki persegi. [31]

Karena ayam pedaging relatif muda dan belum mencapai kematangan seksual, mereka menunjukkan perilaku agresif yang sangat sedikit. [31]

Pakan ayam terutama terdiri dari jagung dan bungkil kedelai dengan tambahan vitamin dan mineral penting. Tidak ada hormon atau steroid yang diperbolehkan dalam memelihara ayam. [31] [32]

Issues with indoor husbandry

In intensive broiler sheds, the air can become highly polluted with ammonia from the droppings. In this case, a farmer must run more fans to bring in more clean fresh air. If not this can damage the chickens' eyes and respiratory systems and can cause painful burns on their legs (called hock burns) and blisters on their feet. Broilers bred for fast growth have a high rate of leg deformities because the large breast muscles cause distortions of the developing legs and pelvis, and the birds cannot support their increased body weight. In cases where the chickens become crippled and can't walk farmers have to go in and pull them out. Because they cannot move easily, the chickens are not able to adjust their environment to avoid heat, cold or dirt as they would in natural conditions. The added weight and overcrowding also puts a strain on their hearts and lungs and Ascites can develop. In the UK, up to 19 million broilers die in their sheds from heart failure each year. In the case of no ventilation due to power failure during a heat wave, 20,000 chicken can die in a short period of time. In a good grow out a farmer should sell between 92 and 96 percent of their flock. With a 1.80 to a 2.0 feed conversion ratio. After the marketing of birds the farmer must clean out and prepare for another flock. A farmer should average 4 to 5 grow outs a year.[33]

Masalah dengan peternakan dalam ruangan

Pada kandang broiler intensif, udara bisa menjadi sangat tercemar dengan amonia dari kotorannya. Dalam hal ini, seorang petani harus menjalankan lebih banyak kipas untuk membawa udara segar yang lebih bersih. Jika tidak, ini dapat merusak mata dan sistem pernapasan ayam dan dapat menyebabkan luka bakar yang menyakitkan pada kaki mereka (disebut luka bakar hock) dan lecet pada kaki mereka. Ayam pedaging yang dibesarkan untuk pertumbuhan yang cepat memiliki tingkat kelainan bentuk kaki yang tinggi karena otot-otot payudara yang besar menyebabkan distorsi pada kaki dan panggul yang berkembang, dan burung-burung tidak dapat mendukung peningkatan berat badan mereka. Dalam kasus di mana ayam menjadi lumpuh dan tidak bisa berjalan petani harus masuk dan menariknya keluar. Karena mereka tidak dapat bergerak dengan mudah, ayam tidak dapat menyesuaikan lingkungannya untuk menghindari panas, dingin atau kotoran seperti pada kondisi alami. Penambahan berat badan dan kepadatan penduduk juga membuat jantung dan paru-paru mereka sakit dan Ascites dapat berkembang. Di Inggris, hingga 19 juta ayam pedaging mati di kandang mereka akibat gagal jantung setiap tahun. Dalam hal tidak ada ventilasi karena kegagalan daya selama gelombang panas, 20.000 ayam bisa mati dalam waktu singkat. Dalam pertumbuhan yang baik, seorang petani harus menjual antara 92 dan 96 persen dari kawanan mereka. Dengan rasio konversi umpan 1,80 ke 2,0. Setelah pemasaran unggas, peternak harus membersihkan dan menyiapkan kawanan lainnya. Seorang petani seharusnya rata-rata tumbuh 4 hingga 5 tahun. [33]

Indoor with higher welfare

In a "higher welfare" system, chickens are kept indoors but with more space (around 14 to 16 birds per square metre). They have a richer environment for example with natural light or straw bales that encourage foraging and perching. The chickens grow more slowly and live for up to two weeks longer than intensively farmed birds.[citation needed] The benefits of higher welfare indoor systems are the reduced growth rate, less crowding and more opportunities for natural behaviour.[13]

Free-range broilers

Turkeys on pasture at an organic farm

Free-range broilers are reared under similar conditions to free-range egg-laying hens. The breeds grow more slowly than those used for indoor rearing and usually reach slaughter weight at approximately 8 weeks of age. In the EU, each chicken must have one square metre of outdoor space.[13] The benefits of free-range poultry farming include opportunities for natural behaviours such as pecking, scratching, foraging and exercise outdoors. Because they grow slower and have opportunities for exercise, free-range broilers often have better leg and heart health.[13]

Organic broilers

Organic broiler chickens are reared under similar conditions to free-range broilers but with restrictions on the routine use of in-feed or in-water medications, other food additives and synthetic amino acids. The breeds used are slower growing, more traditional breeds and typically reach slaughter weight at around 12 weeks of age.[34] They have a larger space allowance outside (at least 2 square metres and sometimes up to 10 square metres per bird).[7] The Soil Association standards[17] indicate a maximum outdoors stocking density of 2,500 birds per hectare and a maximum of 1,000 broilers per poultry house.

Issues

Humane treatment

Battery cages

Chickens transported in a truck.

Animal welfare groups have frequently criticized the poultry industry for engaging in practices which they believe to be inhumane. Many animal rights advocates object to killing chickens for food, the "factory farm conditions" under which they are raised, methods of transport, and slaughter. Compassion Over Killing and other groups have repeatedly conducted undercover investigations at chicken farms and slaughterhouses which they allege confirm their claims of cruelty.[35]

Conditions in chicken farms may be unsanitary, allowing the proliferation of diseases such as salmonella, E. coli and campylobacter.[36] Chickens may be raised in very low light intensities, sometimes total darkness, to reduce injurious pecking. Concerns have been raised that companies growing single varieties of birds for eggs or meat are increasing their susceptibility to disease. Rough handling, crowded transport during various weather conditions and the failure of existing stunning systems to render the birds unconscious before slaughter, have also been cited as welfare concerns.

A common practice among hatcheries for egg-laying hens is the culling of newly hatched male chicks since they do not lay eggs and do not grow fast enough to be profitable for meat. There are plans to more ethically destroy the eggs before the chicks are hatched by "in-ovo" sex determination.[37]

Chickens are often "stunned" before slaughter using carbon dioxide or by electric shock in a water bath. These methods are not considered very humane. More human methods are low atmospheric pressure stunning and inert gas asphyxiation.[38]

Beak trimming

Main article: Debeaking

Laying hens are routinely beak-trimmed at 1 day of age to reduce the damaging effects of aggression, feather pecking and cannibalism. Scientific studies (see below) have shown that beak trimming is likely to cause both acute and chronic pain.

The beak is a complex, functional organ with an extensive nervous supply including nociceptors that sense pain and noxious stimuli.[39][40] These would almost certainly be stimulated during beak trimming, indicating strongly that acute pain would be experienced. Behavioural evidence of pain after beak trimming in layer hen chicks has been based on the observed reduction in pecking behavior, reduced activity and social behavior, and increased sleep duration.[41][42][43][44] Severe beak trimming, or beak trimming birds at an older age, may cause chronic pain. Following beak trimming of older or adult hens, the nociceptors in the beak stump show abnormal patterns of neural discharge, which indicate acute pain.[39][45][46][47]

Neuromas, tangled masses of swollen regenerating axon sprouts,[48] are found in the healed stumps of birds beak trimmed at 5 weeks of age or older and in severely beak trimmed birds.[49] Neuromas have been associated with phantom pain in human amputees and have therefore been linked to chronic pain in beak trimmed birds. If beak trimming is severe because of improper procedure or done in older birds, the neuromas will persist which suggests that beak trimmed older birds experience chronic pain, although this has been debated.[50]

Beak-trimmed chicks will initially peck less than non-trimmed chickens, which animal behavioralist Temple Grandin attributes to guarding against pain.[51] The animal rights activist, Peter Singer, claims this procedure is bad because beaks are sensitive, and the usual practice of trimming them without anaesthesia is considered inhumane by some.[52] Some within the chicken industry claim that beak-trimming is not painful[53] whereas others argue that the procedure causes chronic pain and discomfort, and decreases the ability to eat or drink.[52][54]

Antibiotics

Antibiotics have been used in poultry farming in mass quantities since 1951, when the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved their use.[55] Three years prior to the FDA’s approval, scientists were investigating a phenomenon in which chickens who were rooting through bacteria-rich manure were displaying signs of greater health than those who did not. Through testing, it was discovered that chickens who were fed a variety of vitamin B12 manufactured with the residue of a certain antibiotic grew 50 percent faster than those chickens who were fed B12 manufactured from a different source.[56] Further testing confirmed that use of antibiotics did improve the health of the chickens, resulting in the chickens laying more eggs and experiencing lower mortality rates and less illness. Upon this discovery, farmers transitioned from expensive animal proteins to comparatively inexpensive antibiotics and B12. Chickens were now reaching their market weight at a much faster rate and at a lower cost. With a growing population and greater demand on the farmers, antibiotics appeared to be an ideal and cost-effective way to increase the output of poultry. Since this discovery, antibiotics have been routinely used in poultry production, but more recently have been the topic of debate secondary to the fear of bacterial antibiotic resistance.[57]

Emerging threats: antibiotic resistance

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC), has identified the emergence of antibiotic resistance as a national threat.[58] The concern over antibiotic use in livestock arises from the necessity antibiotics have in keeping populations disease-free. As of 2016, over 70 percent of FDA approved antibiotics are utilized in modern, high production poultry farms to prevent, control, and treat disease.[59] The FDA released a report in 2009 estimating that 29 million pounds (13 kt) of antibiotics had been used in livestock in that year alone.[60] However, surveillance of consumer exposure to antibiotics through poultry consumption is limited. More specifically in 2012, the FDA speculated the most significant public health threat in regard to antimicrobial use in animals is the exposure of antimicrobial resistant bacteria to humans.[61] These statements are challenged by the American meat industry lobbyists that antibiotics are used responsibly and judiciously in order to ensure effectiveness.[62]

Consumer health effects

Consumers are exposed to antibiotic resistance through consumption of poultry products that have prior exposure to resistant strains. In poultry husbandry, the practice of using medically important antibiotics can select for resistant strains of bacteria, which are then transferred to consumers through poultry meat and eggs. The CDC acknowledges this transferral pathway in their 2013 report of Antibiotic Resistant Threats in the United States.[63] The annual rate of foodborne illness in the United States is one in six. For the 48 million individuals affected, antibiotics play a critical role in thwarting mortality rates.[64] In a literature review conducted by the Review of Antimicrobial Resistance 100 out of 139 studies found evidence of a link between antibiotic use in animals and antibiotic resistance in consumers.[60]

When a gram-negative bacterial infection is suspected in a patient, one of the first-line options for treatment is in the fluoroquinolone family. This, along with penicillin, is one of the first families of antibiotics utilized in the broiler industry. If this first-line treatment is not successful, a stronger class of antibiotics is typically used, however, there is a limitation on how many classes are available, as well as which medications are available on hospital formularies. There is also more drug toxicity affiliated with second and third line antibiotic options. This is one example why it is critical to keep as many first-line antibiotic options available for human use.[65]

Other issues are associated with duration and complexity of infection. On average, treatment for non-resistant bacteria is administered 11.5 hours after diagnosis, and treatment for resistant bacteria is administered 72 hours after diagnosis.[65] This is a reflection of the additional threat of prolonged incubation, leading to greater potential for systemic disease, with higher morbidity and mortality associated with opportunities for complications, and prolonged treatment time. For example, of the two million people affected by resistant infections a year, 23,000 will die.[66] Severity in mortality is coupled when exposed to high risk populations such as immunocompromised and elderly individuals in hospital and nursing home settings.[67]